Are We Now Living in One World? Essay

The innovation of the area fitting as one, is a concept which has been widely been contested by some(prenominal) writers on subjects much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as modernisation, globalization, and equality to name a few. It is quite clear from out everyday lives in how few aspects of our lives be clearly influenced by different cultures, such as the availability of Indian takeaways on every high street. Robertson (1992) suggests that the ground began to fix more integrated with the europiuman voyages of discovery and colonisation in the fifteenth Century.1 Turner (1994) has shown how in that location has been a global economy since the seventeenth Century.2 Yet other theorists claim that it is a much more recent growth. In this essay I in god to look at many of these theories and in percenticular look at theories of modernisation, and globalisation. red-brickisation replaced the older traditional forms of societies establish on horticulture. Parsons (1966) has referred to the phylogeny of societies as a process of modernisation.This presumes each societies to be unconstipatedtually heading towards the modern stage. This flowerpot be applied to the theory of globalisation in that he is saying that all societies will become similar and modern.3 Rostow (1971) utilise a similar vex to explain human society, in his look it was both evolutionary and possessed an inner logic which leads societies to modernisation.4 In the opinion of Giddens (1990), globalisation originated from modernisation. It is a continuation of the trends from modernisation processes in 18th Century Europe. Modernisation is based on processes of disembedding. It dis-embeds feudal individuals from bushel identities in space and metre. This is k outrightn as the time-space distanciation, which I shall examine in further detail shortly. It is used to explain the historic move from traditional to modern societies and the part played by globalisation in hotf oot up the modernisation process. 5 Giddens (1991) suggests that the modernisation process entails four major sets of institutional complexes of modernness. These be administrative power, military power, metropolisism and industrialism.6 Administrative power refers to the growth and development of the unconsecrated soil reconcile based on rational and bureaucratic forms of administration of its population and law and order. roofism and industrialism represent novel forms of production based and centred on factory and industrial production. Militarism is based upon technical schoolnology and paid armies in modern societies.7 In France, the word for globalisation is mondialisation. In Spain and Latin America, it is globalizacion. The Germans say globaliserung. This shows how far the endpoint has spread and how widely used it is. It is give tongue to by many writers such as Giddens (1999) and Beck (2001) that we are now living in a cosmopolitan society which is forming rou ghly us. It is emerging in an anarchic haphazard, vogue carried along by a mixture of economic, technological and cultural imp whiletives.8 Robertson (1996) defines globalisation as a concept, Which refers to both the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole9 Giddens (1991) takes the view that globalisation is an equalising process as it gives previously disempowered groups and nations the potential to realise their goals.He has spoken of globalisation generating reverse colonialism which agency that non- western countries influence developments in the west. Examples of this are the Latinising of Los Angeles, the emergence of a globally orientated high tech sector in India and the selling of Brazilian TV programmes to Portugal.10 For Giddens (1994) globalisation is a social process which results in, big and larger numbers of people living in circumstances in which disembedded institutions, linking topical anesthetic practises wit h globalised social relations, channelise major aspects of day to day career.11 However, he sees it as a contradictory and uneven process. He claims that it pulls away from local communities and uses the mannikin of the weakening of the capacities and power from nation states in the hands of supra national political organisations.It is as well said to push down as it may present local communities with new possibilities and demands, such as the increase of nationalist movements, for example, in Scotland.12 globalization is said to emanate from the 1960s as this is when aspects of the modernisation process received added impetus as a result of globalisation. In late modernism there is a world capitalist system which is dominated by Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) which operate in interdependently of nation states. TNCs stomach be the dominant economic actor especially in developing countries.13 In industrialism Giddens (1994) claims there has been a development of the Interna tional Division of Labour in which local industries are incorporated. Previously offprint and distinct industries are now winding in trading raw materials and components with each other.He similarly mentions how industrialisation now includes the service and culture industries. These industries are now outside(a)ly based.14 The administrative powers of the nation state grow due to the increasing internationalisation of state relations through the sharing and pooling of knowledges and hardware states apprize increase their powers of surveillance and control over populations.15 Military power has become globalised through the increasing alliances amongst states, which empowers members of each alliance.16 This can be seen today in the alliance betwixt the UK and the US in fleck the war against terrorism in Afghanistan. The concept of ethnocentricism can see seen as a criticism of globalisation as most of the developments benefit the fertileer Western countries rather than equa lising wealth. Gilroy (1995) has illustrated this by saying that the West has used the endure of the world, especially regarding the use of slavery by which to modernise.17 Parsons saw the West as the bushel source of modernisation, and globalisation is said to gull come from modernisation.18 Giddens (1999) speaks of how all giant multinational companies come from juicy countries, most being based in the US. It can in any case be seen that global poverty carcass at scandalous levels and millions of people around the world have little, if any, democratic rights. The share of the worlds population in global income has dropped from 2.3% to 1.4% from 1989 to 1999. The proportion taken by the richest fifth has risen from 70% to 85%. In Sub-Sahara Africa, 20 countries have lower incomes per head in real terms than they did twenty old age ago. In many less developed countries, safety and environmental regulations are low or close non-existent. Some TNCs sell goods in these countrie s that are controlled or banned in developed countries, such as poor quality medical drugs, destructive pesticides and high tar and nicotine cigarettes.19 Tanzanias debt of 4.5 one thousand thousand is 152% of its GNP. 85% of the Zambian population lives in absolute poverty.20 The abandonment of the term threesome world can be an indicator of the alleged convergence of the world. The term originates from the belief that the group of countries it stood for would develop to modernity by a third route that differed from that of the first world or the second. The first world refers to the countries involved in the industrial revolution and the capitalist route to modernity and the second world refers to the Soviet mob who took the socialist route to modernity. Harris (1986) claimed that the abandonment of the term was due to the increasing global integration and therefore the capriciousness of distinct worlds were out of date.21 This theory is supported by the fact that some countri es previously referred to as third world are now economic rivals of the first world, such as Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore.22 However, again the statistics on deprivation, as shown above, conflict with this view. Global inequality is clearly not decreasing in all areas. The historical movement from traditional societies to modern ones and the part played by globalisation in speeding up the movement begun by the modernisation process is referred to as Time-space distanciation by Giddens (1991) and Time- Space Compression by David Harvey (1989). Traditional societies are said to be based upon social relations embedded in time and space. For example, time for a peasant, would be based upon the cyclical nature of the seasons due to their reliance on agriculture as a means of subsistence. This also meant that time to different societies were different, as their neighbours would use different measurements of time.The ruse of the clock is significant to this as it allows one meas ure of time to be universalised and not narrow and topically defined. This can reduce the sense of social distance between communities. The sense of time is now global, as there is now only one concept of time in the world. Distances appear to have shrunk as one community is using the same concept of time as one on the other side of the world.23. In this sense, it can be said that modernisation dis-embeds the individual from their fixed identity in time and space. The two mechanisms Giddens (1991) claims are processes of disembedding are symbolic tokens and expert systems. Money is used as an example of symbolic tokens as it was not used in traditional times economic exchange was based upon local and particularistic expressions of value.With modernisation comes bullion as a universal form of exchange. Money, as time, acts to institute general and universal what once were particularistic and local exchanges. As the current main form of exchange, money can make the world calculate as one as it allows individuals to move between local contexts and can therefore establish social relations across time and space.24 As modernisation created the feel of a national currency which diminished fight within national boundaries, then globalisation removes differences between national currencies, for example, with the birth of the credit card. The credit card is accepted around the world qualification it easier to dribble money worldwide. The introduction of the Euro in many European countries in January 2002 is another example.25 Expert Systems are the result of scientific discoveries and technical knowledge which claim to be universal. They are not context dependent and therefore can establish social relations across time and space. An example of this is the current model of health care which is based on universal claims of science and dominates across the globe. Other models are ridiculed or labelled alternative, such as holistic therapies.26 A second shrinking of the world occurred accord to Harvey in 1847-8 with the economic collapse of credit. As a consequence of the collapse finance capitalists across Europe attempted to centralise capital and credit markets. Time was therefore further compressed as capital investments could move faster through the new rationalised system. The further conquest of space was made possible as investments are made in forms of transportation such as the railways and shipping.27 This compression of space is give further impetus at the turn of the 20th century as investments are made in aviation and new media such as radio, photography and the cinema.28 According to Harvey the revolution in electronic technologies, such as computerisation and the Internet have meant that time and space has been conquered, as instantaneous communication is a reality.29 in that location are many sceptics to who all talk of the word becoming as one is simply talk. whatever the benefits, trials and tribulations, the global econo my is not especially different from that which existed at previous periods. The world is the same as it has been for many eld.They use the example of external trade, saying that for most countries only a small part of income originates in external trade. Most economic exchange is regional, such as the countries in the European amount mostly trade amongst themselves. The same is said to be true of the other main trading blocks such as the Asia Pacific and North America.30 Sutcliffe (1995), for example, claims that global development is impossible since it would be economically unsustainable. He argues that development is going in the wrong direction, the underdeveloped countries would be better models for sustainable societies than the developed ones.31 Giddens (1999) criticises these views pointing out how globalisation sceptics are often on the old political left and they believe that globalisation is a model proposed by those who wish to dismantle the welfare state and cut back on state spending. If the concept of globalisation is a myth then governments can still intervene in economic life and the welfare states can remain intact. 32 Giddens (1999) argues that the global marketplace is much more developed than even two or three decades ago and national borders are no longer of importance.He claims that, The era of the nation state is over.33 Nations are said to have lost most of the sovereignty and politicians have lost the power to influence events. However, Turner (1994) demonstrates how a high degree of economic globalisation occurred during the 17th Century.34 Other writers claim similar points saying that the world has reversed to how it was a century ago as in the late 19th Century there was a global open economy, with a expectant deal of trade occurring, including trade in currencies.35 Giddens (1999) criticises this saying that the level of world trade today is great than it ever has been and involves a much wider range of goods and services, b ut the most important is the level of finance and capital flows. He uses the example of electronic money, money that only exists on computers. Money can be transferred around the world at simply a click of a mouse. Over a trillion dollars is said to be turned over everyday in global currency, a massive increase from ten years ago. The money an individual has personally depends on the fluctuations in the global currency markets.36 scoop shovel Weber wrote on the nation state and maintained that the power to declare war or relaxation was one of the essential features of a state. If it doesnt have a monopoly over was and peace, then it isnt a state.37 Beck (2001) takes this up saying that the power to decide between war and peace is no longer a matter for an individual state acting autonomously and uses the example of the war against terrorism to demonstrate this.38 cultures in engineering science and communications are a factor in the debate. In the mid 19th Century Samuel interna tional Morse code transmitted the first message by electric telegraph initiating a new phase in world history. Morse code was discontinued as a means of communications at sea on 1st February 1999. Now we have communications satellites, which were first launched just over 30 years ago and now there are over 200 satellites creating instantaneous communications across earth. too other types of electronic communications have accelerated over the past years. No dedicated transatlantic or transpacific cables existed until the late 1950s.These all play their part in making the world seem littler and more accessible.39 The reach of media technologies also is a factor in making the world more as one. Celebrities may be more familiar to us than our next door neighbours. I could not tell you who my neighbours were yet many people around the world would be able to say, for example, who Brad Pitts wife is. Giddens (1999) expresses how far the media has reached and how cultures have globalised b y using an example of a friend of his who studied village life in central Africa. On her arrival in a remote area she was invited to a local home for an evenings entertainment and instead of finding out the traditional pastimes of the community, they watched underlying Instinct on video, which hadnt reached British cinemas at this point.40 The changing roles of women around the world and the changing social organization of the family are also due to globalisation and making the world more similar.For example, Cherie Blair has recently launched a unravel to help the women of Afghanistan, as by our standards they have no rights. Ulrich Beck (1992) writes about reflexive modernisation and in an obligate published online for the impudently solon he writes about how this is bringing the world together. Reflexive modernisation is a description of contemporary society in which we become aware of the risks and dangers of industrial technological society and in which increased knowledg e about how to deal with this creates more sensation of dangers and risks.41 He applies this to the recent terrorist attacks to show how, The militant camps and nations of the world united against the commonality foe of global terrorism.42 Old rivalries of the US, such as with capital of the Russian Federation and Beijing are forgotten and a real cease-fire between Israel and the Palestinians is enforced. He pontificates that humanities common fear is now making new bonds and dissolving the boundaries of national and international governance creating the globalisation of politics in which states are moulded into transnational co-operative networks.He also shows how foreign and domestic policy, national security and international co-operation are now interlocked. Since 11th September, terrorist sleepers have been identified in Hamburg, Germany, and many other places. Therefore German domestic policy is now an important part of US domestic and foreign policy. So are the domestic foreign, security and defence policies of France Pakistan, Great Britain, Russia and so on.43 There are very many arguments suggesting that the world is becoming as one.Other arguments I have not gone into are the growing awareness of the global environment and the ways people all over the world are trying to help, such as with the South American rainforest and the widespread starvation of Africa. Global tourism is also making us more aware of our world and the ease of travel to far away places makes the world seem as if it is smaller than when the first voyage of discovery crossed the Atlantic Ocean. The spread of the English talking to around the world and the films and television programmes seen by hundreds of millions of people in different countries also contribute.The world is also better connected both economically and politically with global financial markets and the World Trade Organisation, also the creation of international political communities such as the European Unio n and the United Nations make the world more integrated. However, we will not live in one world until the problems of inequality between rich and poor are solved. Also until many aspects of difference are recognised and accepted, especially regarding religious difference as this is still a major cause of disagreement in the world today.Bibliography* Beck, U. (1992), Risk club Towards a modernistic modernness, London, Sage * Beck, U. (5/11/01) The Fight for a Cosmopolitan Future, The New Statesman Online, (http//cgi.sociologyonline.force9.co.uk/cgi-bin/frame/FrameIt.cgi?Url=http//www.newstatesman.co.uk/200111050022.htm&Text=Back+to+Socio- News&Title=SociologyOnline+Link&FooterLocation=2&FooterFontFace=Verdana&FooterFontSize=3&ShowRemoverFrame=1&Link=http//cgi.sociologyonline.force9.co.uk/Files/socio-news/SocioNews.shtml&FooterBgcolor=2c448b&FooterTextColor=ffffff&AllowResize=0&FrameBorder=0) 20/11/01 * Fitzgerald, T., http//www.sociologyonline.co.uk/GlobalParsons.htm 20/11/01 * Gi ddens, A., (1990), The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge, Polity. * Giddens, A., (1991), Modernity & self-identity ego and Society in the Late Modern be on, Cambridge, Polity. * Giddens, A., (1994), Beyond Left & Right The Future of organic Politics, Cambridge, Polity * Giddens, A., (1999), caper World How Globalisation Is Reshaping Our Lives, Profile Books. * Giddens A., (1999) Runaway World, utter 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 * Gilroy, P (1993), The Black Atlantic Modernity & Double Consciousness, London, Verso. * Harris, N., (1986), The End of the Third World Newly Industrialising Countries and the Decline of an Ideology, Harmondsworth, Penguin. * Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford, sweet basil Blackwell. * Parsons, T., (1966) Societies Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall. * Robertson, R., (1992)Globalisat ion Social Theory and Global cultivation, London, Sage. * Rostow, W., (1971) Stages of Economic emersion A Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge University Press. * Sutcliffe. B., (1995), Development After Ecology, in Timmon Roberts, J., and Hite, A. (eds.) (2000), From Modernisation to Globalisation Perspectives on Development and Social Change, Oxford, Blackwell * Turner, B.S. (1994) Orientalism, Postmodernism & Globalism, London, Routledge * Weber, M., (1919), Politics as a Vocation, in From goop Weber Essays in Sociology, ed. Gerth, H.H. and Mills, C.W. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1948 * http//www.sociologyonline.co.uk/GlobalWTO.htm 20/11/01 1 Harris, N., (1986), The End of the Third World Newly Industrialising Countries and the Decline of an Ideology, Harmondsworth, Penguin. 2 Turner, B.S. (1994) Orientalism, Postmodernism & Globalism, London, Routledge. 3 Parsons, T., (1966) Societies Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall. 4 Rostow, W., (1971) Stages of Economic Growth A Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge University Press. 5 Giddens, A., (1990), The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge, Polity. 6 Giddens, A., (1991), Modernity & Self Identity Self and Society in the Late Modern progress, Cambridge, Polity. 7 ibid. 8 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 9 Robertson, R., Globalisation Social Theory and Global Culture, London, Sage. 10 Giddens, A., (1991), Modernity & Self Identity Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge, Polity 11 Giddens, A., (1994), Beyond Left & Right The Future of total Politics, Cambridge, Polity 12 Giddens, A., (1999), Runaway World How Globalisation Is Reshaping Our Lives, Profile Books. 13 Giddens, A., (1994), Beyond Left & Right The Future of Radical Politics, Cambridge, Polity 14 ibid. 15 ibid. 16 ibid. 17 Gilroy, P (1993), The Black At lantic Modernity & Double Consciousness, London, Verso. 18 Fitzgerald, T., http//www.sociologyonline.co.uk/GlobalParsons.htm 20/11/01 19 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 20 http//www.sociologyonline.co.uk/GlobalWTO.htm 20/11/01 21 Harris, N., (1986), The End of the Third World Newly Industrialising Countries and the Decline of an Ideology, Harmondsworth, Penguin. 22 Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (1999), Sociology, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 23 Giddens, A., (1991), Modernity & Self Identity Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge, Polity 24 ibid. 25 ibid. 26 ibid. 27 Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford, basil Blackwell 28 ibid. 29 ibid. 30 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 31 Sutcliffe . B., (1995), Development After Ecology, in Timmon Roberts, J., and Hite, A. (eds.) (2000), From Modernisation to Globalisation Perspectives on Development and Social Change, Oxford, Blackwell. 32 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 33 ibid. 34 Turner, B.S. (1994) Orientalism, Postmodernism & Globalism, London, Routledge. 35 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 36 ibid. 37 Weber, M., (1919), Politics as a Vocation, in From Max Weber Essays in Sociology, ed. H.H. Gerth and C.W. Mills, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1948 38 Beck, U. (5/11/01) The Fight for a Cosmopolitan Future, The New Statesman Online http//cgi.sociologyonline.force9.co.uk/cgi-bin/frame/FrameIt.cgi?Url=http//www.newstatesman.co.uk/200111050022.htm&Text=Back +to+Socio- News&Title=SociologyOnline+Link&FooterLocation=2&FooterFontFace=Verdana&FooterFontSize=3&ShowRemoverFrame=1&Link=http//cgi.sociologyonline.force9.co.uk/Files/socio-news/SocioNews.shtml&FooterBgcolor=2c448b&FooterTextColor=ffffff&AllowResize=0&FrameBorder=0 39 Giddens A., (1999), Runaway World, Lecture 1 Globalisation, London, BBC Reith Lectures, http//news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/week1/week1.htm 20/11/01 40 ibid. 41 Beck, U. (1992), Risk Society Towards a New Modernity, London, Sage. 42 Beck, U. (5/11/01) The Fight for a Cosmopolitan Future in The New Statesman Online.